Political map of the inComparisons between the Roman and Han empires involve the study of the roughly contemporaneous and the of. At their peaks, both states controlled a large portion of the world population and produced political and cultural legacies that endure to the modern era; comparative studies largely focus on their similar scale at their pinnacles and on parallels in their rise and decline. The vast majority of studies focus on or; however, the comparison of the two has attracted somewhat increased interest in the 21st century, with several studies examining the concepts of ethnicity, identity, and the views of foreigners. Historyreviewed the previous scholarship when he explained the purpose of 's Ancient Chinese and Mediterranean Empires Comparative History Project and the framework of its study in the early 21st century. And both wrote works comparing the ancient Mediterranean and China; however, their studies have had little influence on later historians of the ancient world. Scheidel gives this as a contributing cause to the relative paucity of comparative studies between the two. The majority of the research in the subject area has concentrated on looking at the intellectual and philosophical history of each society.

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At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, but its grandeur may have also been its downfall. With such a vast. The phrase 'the Fall of Rome' suggests that some cataclysmic event ended the Roman Empire, which stretched from the British Isles to Egypt and Iraq.But in the end, there was no straining at the gates, no barbarian horde that dispatched the Roman Empire in one fell swoop.

He also noted a change in the direction of research in the 2000s, with a refocusing on the 'nature of moral, historical, and scientific thought' in and China.Several scholars have made comparative studies of the two empires. As historian Samuel Adshead puts it, 'Other comparisons could be made. None, however, offers so close a parallel with Han China as the Roman empire'. These have tended to focus on the philosophical and intellectual histories of China and the Greco-Roman world, and despite modern interest, gaps remain in the scholarship comparing Rome and the Han Empire. Scheidel notes that there are no comparative studies of; there is also a virtual absence of work on 'political, social, economic or legal history' of the Greco-Roman world and ancient China. However, he does note that Adshead does briefly address the issue. Wittfogel's work has come in for criticism by later historians, but his studies have not fully been supplanted by up to date theses.

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In modern studies of, ancient China has generally been overlooked. In Scheidel's words, 'compared to the study of Europe and China in the early modern period the comparative history of the largest agrarian empires of antiquity has attracted no attention at all. This deficit is only explicable with reference to academic specialization and language barriers'.The emergence of the United States of America as effectively the only in the world after the in the late 20th century led to a renewed interest in empires and their study. For instance, the Roman Empire has occasionally been held up as a model for American dominance. The United States' is unprecedented in the modern system and thus the only illuminating cases can be found in pre-modern systems: “One difficulty with analyzing unipolarity is that we have mainly the current case, although examining the Roman and ancient China could be illuminating.”In general, with the rise of the American primacy the study of historical empires, such as Han China and Rome, increased. In the field of comparative studies between empires, not just Rome and China, 's The Political System of Empires (1963) has been described as influential as it pioneered the comparative approach.

The act of comparing the Roman and Han empires is aided by the amount of written evidence from both, as well as other artefactual sources. In the words of Fritz-Heiner Mutschler and Achim Mittag, 'Comparing the Roman and Chinese empires contributes not only to understanding the trajectories along which the two civilizations developed, but also to heightening our awareness of possible analogies between the present and the past, be it with regard to America or China.' Recent work by Ronald A. Edwards shows how such comparisons can be helpful in understanding ancient Chinese and Roman political institutions. SocietyPrinciples of have been identified that can be applied to the study of China and Rome.

They draw on analytical and illustrative comparisons. Political structureOne of the most appealing reasons for historians to begin comparing China and Rome, is their ascent to political hegemony over the Mediterranean and East Asia. However, political comparisons by Adshead have received negative response from Chinese history experts; citing his lack of use of Chinese sources, poor support of his arguments and an eagerness to take poorly supported points as facts.Nonetheless more recently, China scholars have been engaging in comparative work on political institutions between China and Rome – see work by Ronald A. Edwards – and between China the early modern Europe – see work by Victoria Tin-bor Hui. RationaleAccording to Adshead's book China in World History, comparing Han China and the Roman Empire gives context and assists understanding of China's interactions and relations with other civilisations of. In his China and the Roman Empire before, their 'differences outweighed the similarities'. In the opinion of Scheidel:only comparisons with other civilizations make it possible to distinguish common features from culturally specific or unique characteristics and developments, help us identify variables that were critical to particular historical outcomes and allow us to assess the nature of any given ancient state or society within the wider context of premodern world history.

^ Scheidel, Walter, Stanford University, retrieved 2009-12-27. ^, p. 4., p. xiii. Harv error: no target: CITEREFMutschlerMittag2008., “Unipolarity: A Structural Perspective,” World Politics, 61/1, (2009): p 200., p. xiii–xiv. Harv error: no target: CITEREFMutschlerMittag2008. ^, p. xiv.

Harv error: no target: CITEREFMutschlerMittag2008. ^. in Scheidel, Walter, Stanford University, retrieved 2009-12-27. Jenner, William John Francis (March 1990). 'Review: China in World History'. The China Quarterly (121): 151. Farmer, Edward (August 1989).

'Review: China in World History'. The Journal of Asian Studies. 48 (3): 583–584., p. 5. Harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFScheidel2009 Sources. Adshead, Samuel Adrian Miles (2000) 1988,. Bonnell, Victoria E.

(April 1980), 'The Uses of Theory, Concepts and Comparison in Historical Sociology', Comparative Studies in Society and History, Cambridge University Press, 22 (2): 156–173,:. Edwards, Ronald A. (2009), 'Federalism and the Balance of Power: China's Han and Tang Dynasties and the Roman Empire', Pacific Economic Review, 14 (1): 1–21,:,. Hui, Victoria Tin-bor (2005), War and State Formation in Ancient China and Early Modern Europe, New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Mittag, Achim; Mutschler, Fritz-Heiner, eds. (2008), Oxford University Press,.

(2003) b1996, 'The Fall of the Roman and Chinese Empires Compared', Stroud: Sutton Publishing,., ed. (2009), Oxford University Press.

Roman Empire: Julius Caesar and the Roman army Learn how Julius Caesar and the Roman army created an empire. Contunico © ZDF Enterprises GmbH, MainzA period of unrest and civil wars in the 1st century bc marked the transition of Rome from a republic to an empire.

This period the career of, who eventually took full power over Rome as its. After his assassination in 44 bce, the of, and Octavian, Caesar’s nephew, ruled. It was not long before Octavian went to war against Antony in northern Africa, and after his victory at (31 bce) he was crowned Rome’s first,. His reign, from 27 bce to 14 ce, was distinguished by stability and peace.Augustus established a form of government known as a principate, which combined some elements from the republic with the traditional powers of a monarchy. The still functioned, though Augustus, as, or first citizen, remained in control of the government. Under Augustus, Rome began to prosper once again, and the emperor came to be looked upon as a god. Thereafter, all good emperors were worshiped as gods after death.

Among the beloved rulers of Rome were (reigned 98–117), (117–138), (138–161), and (161–180)., cruel men also rose to power: (37–41) and (54–68) were so loathed that their reigns were struck from the official Roman records. It was during the rule of (14–37) that was crucified. Thereafter, were tolerated at best—but often tortured or killed—until the reign of (312–337). In 313 an edict of toleration for all religions was issued, and from about 320 was favoured by the Roman state rather than persecuted by it. But the empire was dying. The last of Constantine’s line, (379–395), was the last emperor to rule over a unified Roman Empire.

The Western Empire, suffering from repeated invasions and the flight of the peasants into the cities, had grown weak compared with the East, where spices and other exports virtually guaranteed wealth and stability. When Theodosius died, in 395, Rome split into Eastern and Western empires.

Roman Empire: masonry Learn about the infrastructure of imperial Rome, particularly Roman masonry. © Open University During the later republic and most of the empire, Rome was the dominant power in the entire Mediterranean basin, most of western, and large areas of northern Africa. The Romans possessed a powerful army and were gifted in the applied arts of law, government, and statecraft, but they also acknowledged and adopted contributions of other ancient peoples—most notably, those of the, much of whose was thereby preserved.The Roman Empire was distinguished not only for its outstanding army—the foundation upon which the whole empire rested—but also for its accomplishments in endeavours., for example, was a considered and complex body of precedents and comments, which were all finally codified in the 6th century ( see ). Were without match in the ancient world, designed for comparatively fast transportation and adapted to a wide variety of functions: commerce, agriculture, mail delivery, pedestrian traffic, and military movements.

Roman city planners achieved unprecedented standards of hygiene with their plumbing, sewage disposal, dams, and aqueducts. Roman architecture, though often imitative of Greek styles, was boldly planned and lavishly executed. Triumphal arches important state occasions, and the famous Roman baths were built to stir the senses as well as to cleanse the body.